Arguably the most studied and researched supplement that we have out there today is creatine!
Creatine is a supplement that helps individuals achieve improved strength and muscular hypertrophy. There have been countless amounts of studies and experiments conducted between trained, non trained, beginners and advanced athletes that take creatine compared to those that don't. Following the same program those that supplemented creatine ended up finding better results when it came to strength and muscle hypertrophy.
Even though the results are pretty minimal it shows that the supplement is beneficial. Creatine is found in red meats but for you to gain the benefits from this supplement you would have to consume pretty high amounts in your daily diet. 5 grams is the recommended daily dosage that has been proven to provide the benefits and would be found in a 2 pound steak.
What Is The Recommended Dosage?
Cycle Or No Cycle?
I usually cycle creatine and what this means is I would take creatine as a daily supplement everyday for 8 weeks. For the entirety of the 8 weeks I would be taking approximately 5 grams per day. Once it hits the 8 week mark I will have achieved full saturation of my creatine levels within my body. Taking more creatine after this point provides no additional benefit to me and will only be excreted...
Now missing a day or 2 is not going to be the worst thing in the world and will only add an extra day or two to your creatine cycle.
If you do not cycle it and instead just continuously take it the creatine stores will never be depleted and instead always replenished :)
Times Of Consumption?
Creatine timing has come under debate over the years as people believe it is beneficial to take prior to a workout or after a workout for the best benefits. However this has never been proven and it was always stated that the supplement works in the background and once you have actually filled your stores with enough it will be used effectively.
You have to increase your creatine stores with enough creatine to be used in training!
So no it does not matter if you take it before a workout, first thing in the morning or last thing before bed as long as you are taking it.
Dosage Requirement
3-5 grams is the recommended dosage for individuals to take when wanting the physical benefits that come from ingesting this supplement.
So Should You Take Creatine?
Well depends... Do you want to get stronger and build more muscle?
Are you looking to tone up but don't want to take steroids with all the negative health implications.
What Are The Negatives?
The only negatives that can come about from taking creatine is increased water retention as the supplement works by filling yo
ur muscles with water. Your liver has to handle the load of ingesting and utilising creatine throughout the body so it can take a toll upon this. If you are not training then taking creatine will not do much for you either.
My Closing Thoughts
I guess my closing thoughts are that I believe creatine can be a very good supplement everyone should be taking today to improve their life. We are in a world today that is full of inactivity and the lives we live today are pretty sedentary. It is for this reason I truly push for strength training to be taken up by the masses to improve their health and overall well being. Creatine is the supplement that will aide with this process!!
So in my opinion! ... take creatine!
Brendon
Articles Reviewed For Further Reading
1. Candow, D.G. et al., 2020. Effect of 12 months of creatine supplementation and WHOLE-BODY resistance training on measures of bone, muscle and strength in older males. Nutrition and Health, 27(2), pp.151–159.
In this article, Candow, D.G. et al. review the effect of 12 months of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on bone, muscle and strength measures in older males.
The study used a double blind, repeated measure placebo, randomised control trial design, where older males (49-67 years) were randomised on a 1 on 1 basis to take creatine monohydrate or placebo (corn-starch mal-todextrin) every day for a duration of 12 months of supervised, whole-body resistance training. More so, randomisation was performed using a permuted block design with a computer random number generator conducted by a researcher which was not involved in any other parts of the study.
The authors research focuses on assessing the muscle accretion, muscular strength, bone geometric properties, and bone mineral density effects of creatine supplementation in combination with whole-body resistance training for a duration of 12 months. Full body lean tissue, fat mass, bone mineral density was measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Muscle thickness and bone speed of sound were measured using a B-mode Ultrasound. Maximal strength was determined via a One-Repetition Max test for the upper limbs and lower limbs (chest press and hack squat). The final findings of this study suggest that bone mineral density, bone geometric properties, muscle accretion, and muscle strength was not influenced by long term creatine supplementation. However, older males on creatine lost 1.5% less lean tissue mass when compared to placebo (no creatine group).
This article is useful to my research topic, as Candow, D.G. et al. suggest that creatine supplementation in combined with resistance training would augment the gains in lean tissue mass and muscle strength by influencing phosphate metabolism, glycogen content, satellite cells, muscle protein and calcium kinetics, inflammation and oxidative stress. Therefore creatine supplementation can further augment muscle preservation in older adult males while performing resistance training, leading to increased functionality and ability to perform activities of daily living.
The main limitations in this study are that important variables such as initial muscular creatine levels, muscle fiber properties and habitual dietary creatine intake were not assessed, which may have influenced the final results. More so, the participants in the study did not conduct resistance-exercise equipment familiarisation sessions prior to the start of the study. This could have increased neuromuscular learning during the early stages of the study and also influenced the final results.
The article provided useful and supplementary information regarding my research topic on the effects of creatine supplementation to strength and body composition during resistance training. It will also aid me to provide evidence-based advice to adults trying to augment the gains of muscle mass and strength while performing resistance training.
2. Mills, S. et al., 2020. Effects of creatine supplementation during resistance training sessions in physically active young adults. Nutrients, 12(6), p.1880.
In this article, Mills, S. et al., review the effects of creatine supplementation during resistance training sessions on exercise performance and skeletal muscle mass in physically active young adults aged 19-35 years.
The study used a double blind, placebo controlled, repeated measures design, and participants were matched according to sex, age and body mass to limit differences across groups. The participants were randomised on a 1 on 1 basis to take creatine (0.1g/kg/day of creatine monohydrate) or placebo (mal-todextrin) on training training days which consisted of 5 days per week. The same resistance training sessions were followed by all 22 participants for six weeks.
The primarily dependent variables the authors assessed prior and following the 6 week program were muscle thickness, power, strength, and endurance. Muscle thickness was assessed in the knee/elbow flexors and extensors and ankle plantar flexors using the B-mode Ultrasound. Power was assessed by vertical jump and medicine ball throws. Strength was assessed via a 1RM leg press and chest press, and endurance was assessed with the maximum number of repetitions using 50% of baseline 1RM for chest press and leg press.
Results showed that the creatine group produced greater gains in muscle strength and endurance except chest press, as only males on creatine improved chest press over time with no change for females on creatine. There were no significant increases in muscle mass between groups, however, this could be due to the style and duration of the training program, the reduction in total calorie intake, or the fact that creatine was not taken daily and only on training days.
The article is useful for my research topic, as Mills, S. et al.,suggest that creatine supplementation in combination with resistance training would increase muscle strength and endurance in physically active adults. This information can provide coaches with supplemental advice to their athletes in order to increase their strength and endurance abilities during or outside of competition when conducting resistance training.
The limitations of this study are the small sample size (n=22) and the food records of the participants did not measure the dietary intake of creatine which may have influenced the responsiveness to the creatine supplementation. Therefore, more research will need to be undertaken while examining the effects of dietary intake and see whether this variable will play an effect in future results.
Because the information is up to date and from a reliable source, it will be beneficial and supplement my research on developing evidence-based supplemental advice to enhance individual performance attributes requiring strength and endurance.
3. Wang, C.-C. et al., 2018. Effects of 4-Week creatine Supplementation combined with Complex training on muscle damage and sport performance. Nutrients, 10(11), p.1640.
The article by Wang, C.-C. et al aims to evaluate the effects of a 4-week complex training program combined with creatine supplementation on muscle damage biomarkers and sports performance.
The authors used a double blind randomised matched-pair design to assign 30 males from three explosive type sports (basketball, baseball, and tchoukball) into a creatine or placebo group. The subjects consumed 20g of creatine or carboxymethyl cellulose for 6 days (loading phase) followed by 2g of the supplements (maintenance phase) until the end of the study.
Subjects were tested for strength, running speed, power, body mass, fat free-mass, and body fat percentage and blood creatine kinase. For strength, the 5RM (estimated one repetition max) test was used for the half squat. For running speed, sprint tests were used. To test power, a countermovement jump test using the SmartJump, and anthropometric measurements were conducted with a Bioelectrical Impedance Instrument. More so, to measure blood creatine kinase, before and after the complex training bout, capillary blood from all subjects fingertips were collected immediately, 24 hours, and 48 hours post exercise.
Moreover, the authors research focuses on assessing the measurements above while the participants conduct high resistance exercise in combination with plyometric training three times per week. After the training protocol, the creatine group's strength was significantly greater and their blood creatine kinase activity was significantly reduced when compared to the placebo group.
The article is useful to my research topic as Wang, C.-C. et al. concluded that creatine supplementation combined with heavy resistance training and plyometrics improves maximal muscular strength and reduced muscle damage during training. However, no differences were found in body composition or other variables between groups. The main limitation of this article is the style of programming used, as heavy resistance training (5 repetitions max) and plyometrics are not aimed to increase muscle mass or improve body composition, but rather used to increase power output and strength.
This article will not form the basis of my research but will be remarkably beneficial to supplement my research and systematic review on the effects of creatine supplementation to strength and body composition during resistance training.
4. Pinto, C.L. et al., 2016. Impact of creatine supplementation in combination with resistance training on lean mass in the elderly. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 7(4), pp.413–421.
Within this article by Pinto, C.L. et al, aims to find the impact of creatine supplementation on lean mass in eldery individuals with the utilisation of resistance training.
The intervention involved a 12 week protocol which was double blind and randomized to ensure accuracy of results. All participants were tested prior and post 12 week training protocol for assessment of lean mass, strength and bone mass. A total of 32 participants aged 60-80 were randomly placed into a placebo or creatine group undertaking the same resistance training regimen. Creatine group supplemented 5g/day while the placebo group supplemented the same amount in maltodextrin. Each 60 minute session was supervised and conducted for 12 weeks where both groups were handled in the same way.
Furthermore, testing protocols were undertaken prior and post 12 week intervention to analyse results of supplementation. A 10 repetition maximum test was conducted to assess strength, a digital scale was utilised to assess weight changes to the nearest 0.1kg and stature measurement was undertaken utilising a stadiometer. The utilisation of a DXA scan given to assess body composition of the participants also. Sarcopenia results were extrapolated through the use of equations composed of results from body composition assessment.
Moreover, results showed that the creatine group improved in body composition while abnormalities were found in strength. Strength assessments showed that the creatine group had an improvement in chest press strength relative to the placebo. However, placebo saw a greater increase in leg press strength. In reference to body composition, the creatine group experienced increased body mass, lean mass and decreased body fat. In the assessment of sarcopenia, both groups had participants with either pre-sarcopenic, sarcopenic and severe sarcopenic in the initial assessment prior to the 12 week supplementation protocol. Interesting findings were found whereby the creatine sarcopenia participants saw decreases in sarcopenia while placebo participants saw no relative change in sarcopenia.
The study was deemed useful for research with the ability to be replicated and utilised for the results concluded. Limitations were that the training protocol chosen, drop set resistance training, did not allow for the superior effects of strength which are commonly found in most creatine supplementation studies.
The authors Pinto, C.L. et al concluded that higher volume resistance training could be the mitigating factor as to why most studies find increased strength results however was difficult to assess with the population chosen. There was an absence of a control group, low sample size and a lack of muscle creatine and phosphorylcreatine content measured.
5. Johannsmeyer, S. et al., 2016. Effect of creatine supplementation and drop-set resistance training in untrained aging adults. Experimental Gerontology, 83, pp.112–119.
Authors, Johannsmeyer, S. et al., 2016, delved into the effects of creatine on resistance training within untrained ageing adults. The study utilised drop set training to test supplementation on differing forms of resistance training.
The following study was conducted double blind and participants were matched in order to minimise baseline differences. Utilisation of computer software and an external researcher was used to randomise the participants to either join the creatine supplement or placebo group. Tests were conducted upon; body composition, muscle mass and fat mass, muscle strength on 1RM, bench press, leg press, lat pull down and hack squat, muscular endurance utilising 70-80% of 1RM on leg press and bench press. The study also tested for functional movements of; walking speed, hand grip strength and balance. Testing for muscle protein catabolism with urinary excretion of 3-methylhistidine was also conducted.
Furthermore, 31 Aging Males and Post-Menopausal Females supplemented prior and post training, the creatine group supplemented 0.1g/kg/day of creatine and 0.1g/kg/day of maltodextrin while the placebo group supplemented 0.2g/kg/day of maltodextrin. The training involved maximal repetition achievement at a load of 80%1RM found in familiarisation phase before dropping down to 30%1RM to muscular fatigue (drop set).
The DXA scan was used to test body composition. The participants were tested at baseline and later on post 12 weeks of training. Hand grip strength was tested utilising a handgrip dynamometer for 3 seconds performing a maximal isometric hold. Over a distance of 6, on a 10cm wide board participants performed backward tandem walking which was set up 4cm off the ground. To test muscle protein catabolism they utilised the 3-methylhistidine, they collected urine in the last 24 hours of a 3 day meat free diet completed before and after the intervention.
Following the 12 weeks of the study, the creatine group saw greater improvements in body composition and strength while interesting results were found in functionality and protein catabolism. The creatine group experienced a greater increase in muscle mass while both groups achieved similar results in functionality tests. However, the placebo group had a further increased walking speed and hand grip strength. Both male/female creatine groups found superior results in the; Hack squat, chest press, lat pull-down however the placebo saw a greater improvement in leg press strength. In females, protein catabolism was affected by the creatine group whereby 3-MH increased while this decreased in the placebo group. Males showed no differing effects in creatine or placebo for protein catabolism.
Limitations were found within the study to ensure replicability. While gender was chosen to ensure replication with the general population, the researchers were unable to justify differences and did not stipulate groupings of individuals. They decided upon choosing post-menopausal women which would not suit the general population as there is a large portion of women in the population who are premenopausal. While this study was targeted at an ageing population tests were completed to judge strength and hypertrophy gains from creatine which would be not as useful in this population.
6. Bjelica, B. et al., 2020. Effects of creatine monohydrate on strength and body composition. SPORT I ZDRAVLJE, 15(1).
Authors, Bjelica, B et al., delved into the utilisation of creatine supplementation and its effects testing for values of strength and body composition. This was coupled with resistance training over an 8 week period.
The experiment involved 14 participants who took either creatine or a placebo supplementation throughout the treatment. 6 participants took creatine while the remaining 8 took a placebo supplement throughout the 8 week resistance based training program. Participants were aged 24 +/- 6 months who were all advanced bodybuilders who have been actively training for 4 months at a rate of 3-5x/week. Further inclusion criteria, participants were taking no supplements or prohibited substances such as steroids.
Furthermore, testing protocols involved the assessment of pre and post, strength and body composition values. For muscular strength, the 1RM bench press and leg press and the barbell biceps Scott which tested maximal repetitions of a 15kg load. Body composition was tested utilising the bioelectric impedance TANITA. The tests undertaken involved assessment of body mass, muscle mass, body fat percentage and water percentage.
Moreover, the participants undertook 8 weeks of structured training whereby 4 sessions were completed each week taking up 90 minutes. A loading protocol was undertaken for creatine whereby the first 7 days participants consumed 20g per day broken up in 4 dosages with 20g of Dextrose and water. After loading each participant consumed 5g of creatine with 20g of Dextrose for the next 7 weeks. The placebo group undertook the same supplementation protocol while supplementing with Dextrose.
It was found that the creatine group experienced much greater results in comparison to the placebo group. The creatine group experienced a greater increase than placebo in; body mass, muscle mass and water. There was also a decrease in body fat. Something found in this study was the fact there was no change in body fat percentage even though results show a larger change. This is due to the fact lean muscle mass increased further in the creatine group and as a result would indirectly reduce the percentage of body fat in the body. More so, the creatine group saw increases in; bench press, leg press and the barbell biceps Scott test when compared to placebo.
The article written by Bjelica, B. et al provided useful information for his research topic being the effect of creatine supplementation on strength and body composition deeming useful for my research. Limitations found within this article include the number of participants utilised being (n=14). The groups were not split equally whereby the creatine group had less participants at 6 individuals as opposed to 8 taking placebo supplements. Another limitation was the utilisation of a specific population which would create difficulty in replicating results.
7. Amirsasan, R., Nabilpour, M., Pourraze, H., & Curby, D. (2018). Effect of 8-Week Resistance Training with Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition and Physical Fitness Indexes in Male Futsal Players. International Journal Of Sport Studies For Health, In Press(In Press). doi: 10.5812/intjssh.83810
The authors, Amirsasan, Nabilpour, Pourraze & Curby, 2018, undertook this study which delved into the supplementation of creatine within resistance training and the effects over an 8 week period. They utilised male futsal players testing for body composition and physical fitness.
The study utilised 20 futsal players aged between 18-26 years old, the players were all placed within 2 differing groups; 10 participants with creatine supplementation and 10 participants with placebo supplementation. Both groups participated in resistance training throughout the 8 weeks of the study. The creatine supplementation group supplemented 0.3g/kg/day during loading phase and 0.1g/kg/day during the maintenance phase. Placebo group completed the resistance training with a placebo supplementation prepared in a similar fashion to the creatine group.
Furthermore, the testing was undertaken pre and post 8 weeks of resistance training aiming to evaluate 1RM in barbell bench press, maximum strength from barbell back squat to examine lower limbs, anaerobic power tested with vertical jump test, sulfur test for anaerobic power lactic. The examiners also utilised the speed test, sit and reach for flexibility and body composition analyzer model, in body 320. The body composition analyzer was used for fat free mass, fat %, and BMI.
Moreover, the authors found that body mass, fat free mass and a reduction in body fat percentage all dropped by both groups. The creatine supplemented group found improvements in body mass, fat free mass and a reduction in body fat percentage which was higher relative to placebo supplemented group. The creatine group also showed increased upper strength by 2.86%, and lower limb strength by 3.69 % when compared to placebo. No significant differences were found between the groups in relation to speed, flexibility and anaerobic power.
The study takes into account that the reason for minimal difference found between the groups for power, speed and flexibility could be due to the high level and intensity training the futsal players undertake. Limitations of the study are the low number of subjects/participants. More so, the inclusion criteria could be more broad to ensure a wider variability on the subjects and relative results found within the study. There could have been more tests for strength more relative to the sport e.g. calf, hamstring, glute and quad strength which are widely utilised within futsal.
8. Nunes, J.P. et al., 2017. Creatine supplementation elicits greater muscle hypertrophy in upper than lower limbs and trunk in resistance-trained men. Nutrition and Health, 23(4), pp.223–229.
This article written by, Nunes, J.P. et al., 2017 delves into the supplementation use of creatine on muscle hypertrophy in males that are resistance trained. Nunes, J.P. et al measured hypertrophy of the upper, lower and trunk muscles.
This study utilised 43 resistance trained men aged 27.7 +/- 3 years who either received creatine or placebo over a period of 8 weeks. This was a randomised controlled double blind design whereby the groups were split with no knowledge of what supplement was taken. A loading phase was included whereby 4 doses were taken over 7 days 0.3g/kg/day and a maintenance of 1 dose was taken for the next 7 weeks 0.3g/kg/day. Resistance training occurred 4x/week using the same splits of; pectoral, triceps, shoulders and abdomen, monday and thursday, and back, biceps, calves and thighs, tuesday and friday. A dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and a calibrated electronic medical scale was utilised prior and at the completion of the study to measure the results of the intervention.
Furthermore, the groups were split, creatine group with 22 participants and placebo with 21 participants. To fit in the study all participants must have nothing which could enhance or prohibit benefits of resistance training other than creatine supplementation i.e. steroids, protein powders, diet (vegetarian/vegan) and no symptoms of disease. Experience in resistance training was also a requirement whereby all participants would meet the need to have completed 3x/week over a minimum of 6 months all meeting this requirement.
Moreover, 12 weeks of intervention involved 8 weeks of training with a total of 4 weeks available for testing before and after. Body mass and height were tested with the calibrated medical scales to the nearest 0.1 kg/cm respectively. The DXA scan was utilised to assess the upper and lower limb lean tissue mass and body fat. An equation was used to measure total skeletal muscle mass before and after the study. Food diaries were also undertaken by participants 3 days of a week before and 3 days of a week after the intervention. The training undertaken was designed for muscle hypertrophy, and physical education professionals supervised all the participants within the study to reduce deviation from protocol.
Within this intervention it was found that hypertrophic effects were found however creatine supplementation seemed to elicit the greatest improvements in the upper body. The placebo group also elicited improvements in upper body in comparison to lower and trunk hypertrophy which the authors attribute to multiple factors. The study concluded with the result that the creatine group elicited greater results for total body muscle hypertrophy in comparison to the placebo group being the aim and main find found.
Limitations were found in the study which concluded that the study design and population would not allow for further extrapolation into other populations who are not resistance trained men or other types of exercise, not resistance training. Creatine dosing times were not supervised and upper limbs had a greater volume in terms of training due to their synergistic use within most exercises.
9. Vilar Neto, J.de et al., 2018. Effects of LOW-DOSE creatine monohydrate on muscle strength and endurance. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 9(3).
The article written by Vilar Neto, J.D. et al. delves into the relevant effects of creatine supplementation coupled with resistance training. Low dose and timing of supplementation was also examined through this study.
The study analysed 36 resistance trained males ranging in age 22.4 +/- 4.3 years. Supplementation was undertaken for a total of 35 days, however, resistance training started 6 months prior to supplementation to ensure adherence and beginner training effects were mitigated. The population was randomly split into 3 distinct groups; a placebo group, 3g/day of creatine supplementation and 5g/day creatine supplementation.
Moreover, the subjects undertook testing which allowed the authors Vilar Neto, J.D. et al. to extrapolate; bench press 1RM for upper body strength, maximal pushups in 1 min for upper body muscular endurance and maximal sit ups in 1 min for abdominal resistance. Tests were undertaken pre supplementation, 1 week prior, and every week during supplementation, every 7 days for 5 weeks.
Associations were found between the 3g/day and 5g/day whereby strength performance outcomes were similar. However, both creatine groups had a greater increase in strength than the placebo group signifying the effectiveness of creatine supplementation for upper body strength. Timing differences were found as both creatine groups saw results within 7 days whereas placebo started seeing results after 14 days. For the outcome measure for upper limb muscular endurance, maximal pushups in 1 min, only the 5g/day creatine supplementation group found significant results. This was the only difference found between the 2 creatine supplementation groups. No causal differences were found between all 3 groups for the outcome measure for abdominal muscular endurance, maximal sit ups in 1 min.
As a result, the testing of timing ensured the researchers to understand practical applications of creatine use whereby finding no significant difference between 3g/day and 5g/day for maximal strength finding results within 7 days. However, the timing ensured the ability to find a positive result in terms of upper body muscular endurance after 14 days for the 5g/day creatine supplemented group. This could be of use for endurance athletes with little time for preparation before competition opting for 14 days of 5g/day creatine supplementation to gain significant results in muscular endurance performance.
The main limitations in this study are that there was a small sample size chosen which may have influenced the results. The article provided useful and supplementary information regarding my research topic on the effects of creatine supplementation to strength and body composition during resistance training. It will also aid me to provide evidence-based advice to adults trying to augment the gains of muscle mass and strength while performing resistance training.
10. Bernat, P., Candow, D. G., Gryzb, K., Butchart, S., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Bruno, P. (2019). Effects of high-velocity resistance training and creatine supplementation in untrained healthy aging males. Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism, 44(11), 1246–1253.
The article written by (Bernat, P. et al., 2019) delves into the creatine supplementation coupled with higher velocity resistance training within ageing healthy males. The use of creatine and untrained males were factors which followed through this randomised control trial.
To qualify all participants could not undertake supervised resistance training for ≥ 6 months and no creatine supplementation ≤ 12 weeks prior to the study. Another factor was to be apparently healthy individuals or not suffering from any diseases which may affect the muscular system, liver/kidney or being vegetarian. 24 healthy males over 50 years of age were split whereby 12 participants had creatine supplementation while the other had a placebo. Both groups undertook high velocity resistance training for 8 weeks in total.
Moreover, the creatine group supplemented creatine 0.1g/kg/day with maltodroxin 0.1g/kg/day. Placebo group, supplemented maltodroxin 0.2g/kg/day through the duration of the trial. The trial tested for muscle strength, 1RM leg press, chest press and elbow/knee flexion/extension, muscle thickness, elbow/knee flexors/extensors and peak torque, knee flexion/extension. Physical performance measures were also tested, including balance board time to completion, number of falls and walking speed. Participants also completed a 3 day food diary at the start and completion of the trial to check if energy and macronutrient intake changed over time.
After the resistance training program, the creatine group experienced improvements in only leg press and total lower body strength when compared to the placebo supplemented group. More so, balance board time to completion also increased greater in the creatine group. The trial associated similar results to other findings such as creatine supplementation and resistance training providing improvements in leg strength.
Limitations were found within the study whereby the load consisted of 3 sets per upper body exercise as opposed to 4 sets per lower body exercise. This was a flaw in the study design and could have been the contributor to poor results found in both groups and the decreased ability for creatine to surpass placebo group. It was also found that results from hypertrophy were affected due to the low protein content which would provide that stimulus for growth, ~1g/kg/day. Finally, the low number of participants and short duration of training, 8 weeks, could be reasons as to why the study lacked statistical power in some areas such as hypertrophy, power, torque and chest press strength.
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